The position of Dhimmis in Islam: An historical perspective

Abstract

The title of the dissertation is The Position of Dhimmis in Islam: An historical perspective. The dhimmis or ahl al-dhimma are non-Muslims living as minorities in Islamic state protected by a dhimma, a pact. From Islamic point of view the non-Muslims are called dhimmis because they are under protection of Allah, of his prophet, and of Muslim community. The pact conditions are set by the leader of the Muslim in accordance with Syari'ah (Islamic law), and accepted by the dhimmis who pay jizyah (poll-tax) as a sign of their recognition of the superiority or dominance of Islam. In response to the payment of jizyah, Islamic state are responsible to protect life, property, and honour of dhimmis. The dhimmis have the right to organize their own communities and within these communities the freedom of expression, belief, and association. However, those freedoms may only be exercised within the dhimmis communities. According to Syari'ah, the public domain must always be under the exclusive authority of Muslims. It must be acknowledged that because the relationship between Muslims and dhimmis are regulated by law, the dhimmis are given a definite status in society by the law of God. Although Islamic law does not permit dhimmis to escape their assigned position, that same Islamic law does not permit Muslims to reduce the position of dhimmis. During the period of Muhammad the position of dhimmis was not threatened because of the influence of the last words of Prophet Muhammad himself, which were always based on the revelation of God, the Qur'an. During the period of pious caliphs (632-661 AD) their position was still assured and they were given freedom of religion. During the period of Umayyads (661-750 AD) they were still treated with tolerance. However, at the end of that period, during the rule of Umar ibn Abd al-Aziz, began a definite disabilities for the dhimmis. Restrictions were placed on their dress and began the attempt to oust them from official posts. Beginning with the Abbasids (750-1258 AD) the position of dhimmis was constantly changing. Sometimes their position was tightly controlled, and sometimes they experienced greater tolerance and freedom. Dhimmis face the same experience during the Ottoman Empire (1300- 1924 AD). European presence as colonial powers in Muslims countries and their protection of non-Muslims, was a factor influencing the position of dhimmis. However, once the foreign powers had left, attitudes and actions became far more strict. Dhimmis were viewed as original ally of Islam's enemies. The controls experienced by the church under Syari'ah indirectly destroyed its identity and distinctiveness. First, the church was forbidden to preach the gospel to Muslims. Second, the Islamic principle of not distinguishing between religious and secular authority meant that church leaders were also political leaders. Third, Christians people were continually reminded that their social position was inferior to Muslims by various restrictions, which regulated dress, transportation, the height of homes, and the building and renovation of houses of worship. Fourth, the demiliterization of Christians as a separate group within the country resulted in their exclusion from the life of the country. The Christian leader (the Patriarch) was an exception because he was needed to enforce law order and the collection of the jizyah. It is difficult to reach a single conclusion about the position of dhimmis throughout the history of Islam. The position given by the Qur'an and the Sunnah has often not been expressed in practice by Muslim people and rulers. Constitutionally, Indonesia is not an Islamic state. However, the experience of Christians in Indonesia has sometimes seemed parallel to the certain experiences of dhimmis in Islamic state. For example, Christians may not construct a church building until permission has been obtained from Muslims living in the area. Sometimes churches and other places of worship have been destroyed. In some instances Christians have been prohibited from singing of preaching loudly during the worship service; sometimes they have been forbidden to ring the church bells. Frequently they are prevented from having responsible positions that would put them over Muslims. These experiences are not uniform, but bring an atmosphere of uncertainty and anxiety to the Christian in Indonesia. In a condition such as this two questions need to be considered: What is the attitude of political leaders who are entirely or majority Muslims, and what are the individual and collective attitudes of Muslims towards those who hold different beliefs?